A concern that regularly surfaces amidst discussions on the reliability of early Islamic primary sources is whether the authorship of those sources was under direct influence of governments and political authorities of the time. Such appeals put the integrity of those sources into question: how can we rely on sources that were prone to influence by a multitude of external factors that may have compromised the integrity and sanctity of their contents?
Such concerns, in my opinion, are understandable. The next step, however, would be to evaluate this claim and directly assess Islamic primary sources for indicators that may give us further insight on this matter. If the early hadith collections were authored under direct supervision and influence of past governments, then one would expect to observe certain trends along with a variety of indicators and phenomena in these texts, such as:
A careful analysis of the various early hadith collections will present a vast array of reports that could be labeled as “anti-government” reports. These reports vary in nature: some are directed at Muslim rulers, holding them to a higher standard and emphasizing on their accountability. Other reports are directed at the Muslim public, encouraging them to shun corrupt leaders and to disobey political authorities that command them to do things that displease Allah. Such reports also often emphasize openly enjoining what is good and forbidding what is evil.
Tareq b. Shihab reported that a man once asked the Messenger of Allah ﷺ: “What is the best jihad?”
The Prophet replied: “A word of truth uttered in front of a tyrannous ruler.”
(Ibn Hanbal, Musnad Ahmed 126)
Ka’b b. ‘Ajrah said: The Messenger of Allah once came to us, and we were a group of nine: 5 and 4. One of those numbers consisted of Arabs, and the other one consisted of non-Arabs. The Messenger of Allah then said: “Listen. Have you heard that there shall be rulers after me? Whoever enters upon them and believes them in their falsehood and assists them in their tyranny, then he is not from me and I am not from him; and he shall not approach me at the pond [of Al-Kawthar]. Whoever does not enter upon them, does not assist them in their tyranny, and does not believe them in their falsehood, then he is from me and I am from him; and he shall approach me at the pond [of Al-Kawthar.]”
After transmitting this report, Al-Tirmidhi comments saying: “This hadith is Sahih Gharib…”
(Al-Tirmidhi 95)
Tareq b. Shihab said: The first man to carry out the Khutbah before the Salah on Eid was [the governor] Marwan b. Al-Hakam. Thus, a man stood up and told him: “You have went against the Sunnah!”
Marwan responded saying: “It has already been left.”
Abu Sa’id Al-Khudri thus said: “Regarding this man [who stood up], he has fulfilled his duty. I heard the Messenger of Allah say: ‘Whoever sees an act of evil, then let him change it with his hand. If he cannot do so, then with his tongue; and if he cannot do so, then with his heart; and that is the weakest of Eman.’ “
(Al-San’ani 284)
Al-Hasan Al-Basri said: “We visited Ma’qal b. Yasar [when he was ill]. Then, ‘Ubaydullah b. Ziyad (the governor of Basrah) entered upon us, and Ma’qal told him: “I shall tell you of a hadith I heard from the Messenger of Allah. He said: ‘There is not a ruler who assumes leadership over Muslim subjects and dies while he is deceiving them, except that Allah shall make Jannahforbidden for him.”
(Bukhari 64)
Ibn ‘Umar reported that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said:
“Every one of you is a guardian and every one of you shall be asked about his duties. A governor is a guardian, and he shall be asked about his subjects. A man is a guardian of his family, and he shall be asked about it. A wife is a guardian of her husband’s house, and she shall be asked about it. A slave is a guardian of his master’s property, and he shall be asked about it. Indeed, all of you are guardians and you shall all be asked about your duties.”
(Al-Bazzar 128)
Ibn ‘Umar reported that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said: “It is obligatory upon the Muslim to obey and listen to [the ruler] in what he likes and dislikes, so as long as he is not commanded to commit a sin. If he is commanded to commit a sin, then he needs not obey or listen [to the ruler.]
(Ibn Abi Shaybah 543)
Such concerns, in my opinion, are understandable. The next step, however, would be to evaluate this claim and directly assess Islamic primary sources for indicators that may give us further insight on this matter. If the early hadith collections were authored under direct supervision and influence of past governments, then one would expect to observe certain trends along with a variety of indicators and phenomena in these texts, such as:
- The abundance of “pro-government” reports that promote the interests of governments that existed when these primary sources were authored.
- A lack/scarcity of “anti-government” reports that conflict with the interests of those governments.
- Strong ties between the authors of hadith collections and their respective government authorities.
- The wide-scale (and arbitrary) authentication of “pro-government” reports by early hadith authorities.
The Abundance of “Anti-Government” Reports in the Hadith Collections
It is not in the interest of governments to disperse and circulate reports that conflict with their interests. Such “anti-government” reports span reports that may potentially undermine the governments’ authority, legitimacy or influence. Thus, the abundance of such reports in early Islamic sources would serve as an indicator that that the authorship of these sources was not under direct influence of political authorities of the time.A careful analysis of the various early hadith collections will present a vast array of reports that could be labeled as “anti-government” reports. These reports vary in nature: some are directed at Muslim rulers, holding them to a higher standard and emphasizing on their accountability. Other reports are directed at the Muslim public, encouraging them to shun corrupt leaders and to disobey political authorities that command them to do things that displease Allah. Such reports also often emphasize openly enjoining what is good and forbidding what is evil.
Tareq b. Shihab reported that a man once asked the Messenger of Allah ﷺ: “What is the best jihad?”
The Prophet replied: “A word of truth uttered in front of a tyrannous ruler.”
(Ibn Hanbal, Musnad Ahmed 126)
Ka’b b. ‘Ajrah said: The Messenger of Allah once came to us, and we were a group of nine: 5 and 4. One of those numbers consisted of Arabs, and the other one consisted of non-Arabs. The Messenger of Allah then said: “Listen. Have you heard that there shall be rulers after me? Whoever enters upon them and believes them in their falsehood and assists them in their tyranny, then he is not from me and I am not from him; and he shall not approach me at the pond [of Al-Kawthar]. Whoever does not enter upon them, does not assist them in their tyranny, and does not believe them in their falsehood, then he is from me and I am from him; and he shall approach me at the pond [of Al-Kawthar.]”
After transmitting this report, Al-Tirmidhi comments saying: “This hadith is Sahih Gharib…”
(Al-Tirmidhi 95)
Tareq b. Shihab said: The first man to carry out the Khutbah before the Salah on Eid was [the governor] Marwan b. Al-Hakam. Thus, a man stood up and told him: “You have went against the Sunnah!”
Marwan responded saying: “It has already been left.”
Abu Sa’id Al-Khudri thus said: “Regarding this man [who stood up], he has fulfilled his duty. I heard the Messenger of Allah say: ‘Whoever sees an act of evil, then let him change it with his hand. If he cannot do so, then with his tongue; and if he cannot do so, then with his heart; and that is the weakest of Eman.’ “
(Al-San’ani 284)
Al-Hasan Al-Basri said: “We visited Ma’qal b. Yasar [when he was ill]. Then, ‘Ubaydullah b. Ziyad (the governor of Basrah) entered upon us, and Ma’qal told him: “I shall tell you of a hadith I heard from the Messenger of Allah. He said: ‘There is not a ruler who assumes leadership over Muslim subjects and dies while he is deceiving them, except that Allah shall make Jannahforbidden for him.”
(Bukhari 64)
Ibn ‘Umar reported that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said:
“Every one of you is a guardian and every one of you shall be asked about his duties. A governor is a guardian, and he shall be asked about his subjects. A man is a guardian of his family, and he shall be asked about it. A wife is a guardian of her husband’s house, and she shall be asked about it. A slave is a guardian of his master’s property, and he shall be asked about it. Indeed, all of you are guardians and you shall all be asked about your duties.”
(Al-Bazzar 128)
Ibn ‘Umar reported that the Messenger of Allah ﷺ said: “It is obligatory upon the Muslim to obey and listen to [the ruler] in what he likes and dislikes, so as long as he is not commanded to commit a sin. If he is commanded to commit a sin, then he needs not obey or listen [to the ruler.]
(Ibn Abi Shaybah 543)