As contrary to the legendary and South Arabian origin of the Arabs - I want to offer the evidence that consolidates the position for an Arab origin in the area of Anbar and the eastern Jordanian plateau - the ancient Arabistan and Araba-ya of the Persians and Alexander - the Syro-Jordanian plains..
The earliest mention of the Arabs is by the Assyrian of a Gindibu, a chief of the Arabs in an Akkadian text dated to around 1000 BC, concerned with the Assyrian invasion of Aramean territory - much of which was based in the Syro-Arabian plain. It mentions his alliance with Aramean king Adadidir and king Ahad of Israel, along ther allied forces against the Assyrian king Shalmaneser in the battle of Qarqar in 853 BC. Shortly thereafter we have mention of the Arab tribe of Qidar - mentioned as the Qidri of the Assyrians. A succession of Arbi Qidari queens and kings are given in the decades after. They are mentioned as a pastoral and nomadic tribal confederacy of Arabs bordering the western borders of Assyria.
The Archaemenid Persians give Araba-ya as being between Mesopotamia and the Meditereanean sea. They are both nomadic and settled - and Arabs are said to live in the cities of Uruk and Babylon.
These Arabs are close allies of the Persians and are not considered a subjugated people. They are mentioned as being involved in the wars or Alexander and Xerxes.
Around 500 BC Arabs are present near the shores of the Nile, where there are inscriptions found on bowls, written in Aramaic which mention the names of an Arab Qidari prince Qainu, the son of Geshem the Arab. He invokes an Arab deity - han Illa-t.
His father Geshem mentioned many in the Israelite texts, and has the eastern Delta of Egypt named after him - the land of Geshem - the very area we find the inscribed bowls.
Geshem is mentioned again as an antagonistic Arab leader who is in a state of conflict with the Israelites, and who the Greek authors place in southern Israel bordering the kingdom of Judah.
We see another mention of a certian Geshem bin Sahr in the Qabur al Jundi lihyanite inscriptions.
Geshem, as king of Qidar had his state range from the eastern Delta, southern Israel, and as far south as Dedan.
Under Archaemenid rule - the Arab territories are given as including southern Israel in addition to the bulk of Araba-ya. They are states as being free of tax, a status they share with the Kushites of Nubia.
In the conquests of Tiglath-Pileser and Sargon - Arab tribes which have been brought to subjugation include the Adbeel of southern Israel, who the bible connects with the Dedanites, the 'Eprah, and weirdly enough - the Sheba, who are connected with frankiscnece and the Sabeans.
The Nabaitaya are mentioned in Assyrian texts around this time - a likely reference to the Nabateans, who form a state in the southern region bordering Tayma.
Joseph mentions that the sons of Ishmael roam the area between the Eurphrates and Red sea. Reference store Zabibe and Hazael, queens and king of the Qidri and Arabs are found in Assyrian texts beginning with the reigns of Tiglath-Pilesar.
By the beginning of the 3rd century BC, Arabs are mentioned as living in the eastern Sahara, Mesopotamia, southern Israel, northern Arabia, and the eastern Nile Delta.
Their earliest state - the Qidri confederacy, was soon joined by the Nbtw, the Nabateans Arabs who began inscribing Arabic in an Aramaic script. The Arab tribes of Qidri and the Nabateans are later found in Egypt in locals and especially in the Fayyoum.
Arabs are also mentioned as being an antagonistic element to Alexander the Great and the Macedonians, which they engage in a stand off in the the heart of Lebanon - the Beqaa Valley, sandwiched between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges. The Greek authors first place them generally in the vincity beginning from southern Anatolia to central Arab, and as inhabiting the Sinai, Negev, Lebanon, Syria, and the western fringe of Mesopotamia. Later on are Arabs connected with Arabia proper as we head to the 1st century AD.
We see Nabatean and Mesopotamian Arab arabarches, the Arab-rulers - governors who under Roman and Parthian serve as frontier forces in defence of the border areas between the two states - a role later taken up by the Lakhmids and Ghassanids - whose Arabization shows a massive adoption of Nabatean elite culture (i.e the title Al-Haritha).
By the 1st century AD, Arabs are trading far and wide, and are notable seafarers. The Nabateans and Arab pirates are mentioned in the Red sea - and as conducting trade with Berenice and the first Berber country and the Somali coast.
With that preface - I want to begin with destroying the central tenet of Yemenite Arab origins: the indiginity of Arabs in South Arabia. I will move on to the linguistic evidence later.
The non-Arab but central Semitic Saba and Himyar have Arab sha'b and mercs as mentioned early as the Himyarite conquest of Hadramaut and Peripulus of Erythrean.
The Sabaeans and Himyars used these A'rab to mann their militaries and border garrisons - first against other Arabs and badw, then drew them against the other South Arabian rivals - Hadramawt against Saba, Himyar vs Saba, Himyar against Hadramawt - and finally against their own clan rivals and in-group rivals in what became an increasingly microscopic infighting.
It was this that primarily afforded the A'rab to increasingly consolidate favors and power - and just like the Abbasids were overthrown by their own Turkic ghilman centuries later. The destruction, expulsion, and conquest of the South Arabians afforded two broad paths to Arabization:
1) tribal migration into Arab territories in deep Arabia, and ensueing Arabization of South Arabians
2) usurption of the South Arabian states by Arab qayls and qdms.
3) the migration of 2 Arab segments:
A) the asl Arab bdw, driven by drought, employment, fertile land, and resources and likely summoned by Arab tribal kinsmen serving in South Arabia
B) the reverse migration and conquest of the Arabized Kahlan and South Arabians, such as those of Imru al-Qays and possibly Madhj
One of the earlier mentions of Arabs in non-South Arabian languages comes from the Peripulus of the Erythrean sea , which mentions Arabs in resident in Mouza, Soqotra, and and the isle of Sarapis, and engaged in the Himyarite trade in Southeast Africa - which gives a cut off date of 1st century AD. They are mentioned in a variety of social roles - as Shayks or Kaahins, and as traders and agents of the Himyarite king.
Outside of Southwest Arabia - the MSA (not Central Semitic) Meheris existed, where they are mentioned as early as 1800 years ago in Hadrami and Sabaen texts. They and possibly other MSA speakers inhabited the borders of Southwestern Arabia and into Uman, and were recognized as tribes of the Himyarite state. Soqotris at this period lived in Soqotra - and the undeciphered Dhofari inscriptions support a wide distribution of MSA languages in South Arabia, including not only Al-Shihr but all the way to the Persian Gulf - bounded by the margins of the Rub al-Khali to the north.
When it came to Arabs - Sabeans, Himyarites, and Hadramis clearly show in their texts that the 'rb are an outside and foreign people. They inhabit the suburbs and are looked at as militant desert tribes engaged as mercenaries for the South Arabians.
A good thread to show how this played out is with with major Himyarite conquests, which begin under Shammar Yuhar'ish of Saba, and with conquest of the Hadramite capital at Shabwa - it ends with the subsequent fulfillment of the conquest of the Hadraami kingdom by his son a few years later.
After the Himyarite takeover of Shabwa, Shammar is mentioned as the king of not only Saba, Hadramawt, and Dhu Raydan - but as the king of Yamnat, likely cognate with Yemen. But most interestingly is this - the kings of Himyar (mlk hmy-r) are later mentioned as king of the Arabs, both of the highlands and lowlands. This addition does not exist with King Shammar - and the acknowledgement of the Arabs as a sha'b cements their pathway to power, revealing a change in South Arabian discourse towards the Arabs. No longer are they just fleeting subjects, but incorporated citizens of the Himyarite state - as we see with the Meheri. Clearly something was different during the rule of king Shammar.
Around the year 400 - a series of Himyarite campaigns begin to target Mahra and central and eastern Arabia.
We hear of the Meheris for the first time, although the Soqotri are mentioned earlier. Other possible MSA speakers are also mentioned. With these conquests, the Himyarites may have gone as far as 'rd Uman - the Kahlani territory of eastern Arabia.
(Continued below - I almost reached the 10k limit)
The earliest mention of the Arabs is by the Assyrian of a Gindibu, a chief of the Arabs in an Akkadian text dated to around 1000 BC, concerned with the Assyrian invasion of Aramean territory - much of which was based in the Syro-Arabian plain. It mentions his alliance with Aramean king Adadidir and king Ahad of Israel, along ther allied forces against the Assyrian king Shalmaneser in the battle of Qarqar in 853 BC. Shortly thereafter we have mention of the Arab tribe of Qidar - mentioned as the Qidri of the Assyrians. A succession of Arbi Qidari queens and kings are given in the decades after. They are mentioned as a pastoral and nomadic tribal confederacy of Arabs bordering the western borders of Assyria.
The Archaemenid Persians give Araba-ya as being between Mesopotamia and the Meditereanean sea. They are both nomadic and settled - and Arabs are said to live in the cities of Uruk and Babylon.
These Arabs are close allies of the Persians and are not considered a subjugated people. They are mentioned as being involved in the wars or Alexander and Xerxes.
Around 500 BC Arabs are present near the shores of the Nile, where there are inscriptions found on bowls, written in Aramaic which mention the names of an Arab Qidari prince Qainu, the son of Geshem the Arab. He invokes an Arab deity - han Illa-t.
His father Geshem mentioned many in the Israelite texts, and has the eastern Delta of Egypt named after him - the land of Geshem - the very area we find the inscribed bowls.
Geshem is mentioned again as an antagonistic Arab leader who is in a state of conflict with the Israelites, and who the Greek authors place in southern Israel bordering the kingdom of Judah.
We see another mention of a certian Geshem bin Sahr in the Qabur al Jundi lihyanite inscriptions.
Geshem, as king of Qidar had his state range from the eastern Delta, southern Israel, and as far south as Dedan.
Under Archaemenid rule - the Arab territories are given as including southern Israel in addition to the bulk of Araba-ya. They are states as being free of tax, a status they share with the Kushites of Nubia.
In the conquests of Tiglath-Pileser and Sargon - Arab tribes which have been brought to subjugation include the Adbeel of southern Israel, who the bible connects with the Dedanites, the 'Eprah, and weirdly enough - the Sheba, who are connected with frankiscnece and the Sabeans.
The Nabaitaya are mentioned in Assyrian texts around this time - a likely reference to the Nabateans, who form a state in the southern region bordering Tayma.
Joseph mentions that the sons of Ishmael roam the area between the Eurphrates and Red sea. Reference store Zabibe and Hazael, queens and king of the Qidri and Arabs are found in Assyrian texts beginning with the reigns of Tiglath-Pilesar.
By the beginning of the 3rd century BC, Arabs are mentioned as living in the eastern Sahara, Mesopotamia, southern Israel, northern Arabia, and the eastern Nile Delta.
Their earliest state - the Qidri confederacy, was soon joined by the Nbtw, the Nabateans Arabs who began inscribing Arabic in an Aramaic script. The Arab tribes of Qidri and the Nabateans are later found in Egypt in locals and especially in the Fayyoum.
Arabs are also mentioned as being an antagonistic element to Alexander the Great and the Macedonians, which they engage in a stand off in the the heart of Lebanon - the Beqaa Valley, sandwiched between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges. The Greek authors first place them generally in the vincity beginning from southern Anatolia to central Arab, and as inhabiting the Sinai, Negev, Lebanon, Syria, and the western fringe of Mesopotamia. Later on are Arabs connected with Arabia proper as we head to the 1st century AD.
We see Nabatean and Mesopotamian Arab arabarches, the Arab-rulers - governors who under Roman and Parthian serve as frontier forces in defence of the border areas between the two states - a role later taken up by the Lakhmids and Ghassanids - whose Arabization shows a massive adoption of Nabatean elite culture (i.e the title Al-Haritha).
By the 1st century AD, Arabs are trading far and wide, and are notable seafarers. The Nabateans and Arab pirates are mentioned in the Red sea - and as conducting trade with Berenice and the first Berber country and the Somali coast.
With that preface - I want to begin with destroying the central tenet of Yemenite Arab origins: the indiginity of Arabs in South Arabia. I will move on to the linguistic evidence later.
The non-Arab but central Semitic Saba and Himyar have Arab sha'b and mercs as mentioned early as the Himyarite conquest of Hadramaut and Peripulus of Erythrean.
The Sabaeans and Himyars used these A'rab to mann their militaries and border garrisons - first against other Arabs and badw, then drew them against the other South Arabian rivals - Hadramawt against Saba, Himyar vs Saba, Himyar against Hadramawt - and finally against their own clan rivals and in-group rivals in what became an increasingly microscopic infighting.
It was this that primarily afforded the A'rab to increasingly consolidate favors and power - and just like the Abbasids were overthrown by their own Turkic ghilman centuries later. The destruction, expulsion, and conquest of the South Arabians afforded two broad paths to Arabization:
1) tribal migration into Arab territories in deep Arabia, and ensueing Arabization of South Arabians
2) usurption of the South Arabian states by Arab qayls and qdms.
3) the migration of 2 Arab segments:
A) the asl Arab bdw, driven by drought, employment, fertile land, and resources and likely summoned by Arab tribal kinsmen serving in South Arabia
B) the reverse migration and conquest of the Arabized Kahlan and South Arabians, such as those of Imru al-Qays and possibly Madhj
One of the earlier mentions of Arabs in non-South Arabian languages comes from the Peripulus of the Erythrean sea , which mentions Arabs in resident in Mouza, Soqotra, and and the isle of Sarapis, and engaged in the Himyarite trade in Southeast Africa - which gives a cut off date of 1st century AD. They are mentioned in a variety of social roles - as Shayks or Kaahins, and as traders and agents of the Himyarite king.
Outside of Southwest Arabia - the MSA (not Central Semitic) Meheris existed, where they are mentioned as early as 1800 years ago in Hadrami and Sabaen texts. They and possibly other MSA speakers inhabited the borders of Southwestern Arabia and into Uman, and were recognized as tribes of the Himyarite state. Soqotris at this period lived in Soqotra - and the undeciphered Dhofari inscriptions support a wide distribution of MSA languages in South Arabia, including not only Al-Shihr but all the way to the Persian Gulf - bounded by the margins of the Rub al-Khali to the north.
When it came to Arabs - Sabeans, Himyarites, and Hadramis clearly show in their texts that the 'rb are an outside and foreign people. They inhabit the suburbs and are looked at as militant desert tribes engaged as mercenaries for the South Arabians.
A good thread to show how this played out is with with major Himyarite conquests, which begin under Shammar Yuhar'ish of Saba, and with conquest of the Hadramite capital at Shabwa - it ends with the subsequent fulfillment of the conquest of the Hadraami kingdom by his son a few years later.
After the Himyarite takeover of Shabwa, Shammar is mentioned as the king of not only Saba, Hadramawt, and Dhu Raydan - but as the king of Yamnat, likely cognate with Yemen. But most interestingly is this - the kings of Himyar (mlk hmy-r) are later mentioned as king of the Arabs, both of the highlands and lowlands. This addition does not exist with King Shammar - and the acknowledgement of the Arabs as a sha'b cements their pathway to power, revealing a change in South Arabian discourse towards the Arabs. No longer are they just fleeting subjects, but incorporated citizens of the Himyarite state - as we see with the Meheri. Clearly something was different during the rule of king Shammar.
Around the year 400 - a series of Himyarite campaigns begin to target Mahra and central and eastern Arabia.
We hear of the Meheris for the first time, although the Soqotri are mentioned earlier. Other possible MSA speakers are also mentioned. With these conquests, the Himyarites may have gone as far as 'rd Uman - the Kahlani territory of eastern Arabia.
(Continued below - I almost reached the 10k limit)
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